Chapter 5 Study Questions and Objectives
1. Define ``escape conditioning.'' Provide and recognize original examples of escape conditioning.
2. Define ``negative reinforcement,'' and explain how it is related to escape conditioning. Distinguish between negative reinforcement and punishment.
3. Define ``establishing operation.'' Identify what establishing operation is used in escape conditioning and describe how it is used.
4. Describe the correct usage of the terms ``escape conditioning,'' ``negative reinforcement,'' ``negative reinforcer,'' and ``aversive stimulus.'' Explain why the term ``aversive stimulus'' is sometimes convenient to use.
5. Define ``aversive stimulus change.''
6. Describe how extinction is used to weaken escape responding.
7. Define ``avoidance conditioning.'' Provide and recognize original examples of avoidance conditioning.
8. Describe an alternative way to define avoidance conditioning in terms of the prevention or postponement of an aversive stimulus.
9. Explain why avoidance conditioning is considered to be a form of negative reinforcement.
10. Compare and contrast escape and avoidance conditioning.
11. Explain how extinction is applied to avoidance responding. Give original examples of the extinction of avoidance behavior. Explain whether avoidance behavior is easy or difficult to extinguish. Explain why.
12. Distinguish between ``signaled avoidance'' and ``unsignaled avoidance.''
13. Explain how escape and avoidance conditioning procedures are often used together in behavior-change programs. Provide original examples of how escape and avoidance procedures might be used together.
14. Explain why positive reinforcement is normally the treatment of choice for encouraging desirable behavior. Describe the two major conditions under which escape and avoidance conditioning techniques should be used. Provide original examples of the use of avoidance under each of these two conditions.
15. Provide and recognize original examples of each of the following types of aversive stimuli used in avoidance and escape conditioning: (a) physical (unconditioned) aversive stimuli, (b) reprimands, (c) timeout, (d) response cost, (e) aversive activities, (f) overcorrection, and (g) aversive social stimuli.
16. Provide and recognize original examples in which escape conditioning strengthens undesirable behaviors. Explain why it is important to find out if a behavior is maintained by avoidance dependencies. Describe how behavior analysts have solved the problem of inappropriate behaviors maintained by escape conditioning.
17. Provide and recognize original examples of inappropriate behavior strengthened and maintained through avoidance conditioning. Explain what some behavior analysts believe about the role of avoidance conditioning in psychological disorders.
18. Identify and describe how the following conditions that influence the effectiveness of punishment also influence the effectiveness of escape and avoidance: (a) instructions, (b) consistency of the aversive consequence,
(c) delay of the aversive consequence, (d) response energy, and (e) intensity of the aversive consequence. Provide and recognize original examples illustrating the influence of each of these conditions.
19. Identify and describe how escape and avoidance conditioning are influenced by: (a) reinforcers for alternative behaviors, (b) removing punishers for the escape and avoidance responses, (c) time interval sizes (for avoidance conditioning), and (d) previous response- independent aversive stimulation. Provide and recognize original examples illustrating the influence of these conditions.
20. Define ``learned helplessness.'' Provide original examples of learned helplessness.
21. Describe the two-factor theory of avoidance. Describe observations that support the two-factor theory. Explain why many behavior analysts reject the two-factor theory.
Chapter 6 Study Questions and Objectives
1. Define ``shaping.'' Provide and recognize original examples of shaping. Describe the correct usage of the terms ``shaping'' and ``successive approximations.''
2. Define ``dimensions or features of behavior.'' Define ``shaping dimension.'' Describe how behavior can be shaped using topographical, temporal, and intensive shaping dimensions. Define ``topographical shaping'' and ``quantitative shaping'' (using various quantitative dimensions). Provide and recognize original examples of each type of shaping.
3. Provide an original example of the shaping of a response in which it is difficult to specify the shaping dimension.
4. Describe the contribution of each of the following variables in making shaping effective: (a) selection of the goal response, (b) selection of the starting behavior, (c) selection of the shaping dimension, and (d) selection of the shaping steps.
5. Explain why it is sometimes important to use methods other than shaping to teach new behaviors.
6. Define ``intermittent reinforcement'' and ``continuous reinforcement.'' Provide and recognize original examples of each.
7. Define ``schedule of reinforcement.'' Define and describe the following types of reinforcement schedules: (a) fixed-ratio schedules, (b) variable-
ratio schedules, (c) fixed-interval schedules, (d) variable-interval schedules, (e) fixed-duration schedules, (f) variable-duration schedules,
(g) differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedules, (h) differential- reinforcement-of-high-rate schedules, and (i) differential-reinforcement- of-paced-responding schedules. Provide and recognize original examples of each type of schedule.
8. Describe the post-reinforcement pause that occurs in a fixed-ratio schedule. Describe the relationship between the size of the reinforcement schedule and the length of the post-reinforcement pause.
9. Describe how variable-ratio reinforcement schedules effectively maintain gambling behavior.
10. Explain the major problem with using fixed-interval schedules in most behavior-change programs.
11. Define and describe a limited-hold dependency. Provide and recognize original examples of limited-hold dependencies in fixed-interval and variable-interval reinforcement schedules.
12. Identify the practical advantage that variable-interval schedules have over fixed-interval schedules in behavior-change programs.
13. Under what conditions is it desirable to use a fixed-duration schedule of reinforcement? Give an original example illustrating the appropriate use of a fixed-duration schedule of reinforcement.
14. Describe the type of reinforcement schedule that is in effect when an employee is paid by the hour. Describe additional dependencies that are often in effect when this type of payment system is used. Explain why the hourly wage system is a relatively poor method of encouraging productivity.
15. Define and describe the following two types of differential-reinforcement- of-low-rate- behavior (DRL) schedules: (a) spaced responding DRL, and
(b) interval DRL. Describe the special case of interval DRL called full-session DRL. Provide original examples of these types of DRL schedules. Describe the conditions under which it is appropriate to use DRL schedules.
16. Explain when it is desirable to use continuous and intermittent reinforcement schedules. Describe the three major reasons for intermittently reinforcing behavior that has previously been acquired.
17. Describe the relation between the intermittency of reinforcement and the diversity or variability in responding. Provide original examples illustrating this relationship.
18. Describe the variables that contribute to the effectiveness of reinforcement schedules that are the same factors that contribute to the effectiveness of reinforcement.
19. Define ``thinning of a reinforcement schedule,'' and explain why it contributes to the effectiveness of the schedule. Describe the two reasons for thinning reinforcement schedules. Define ``ratio strain.'' Provide and recognize original examples of thinning of a reinforcement schedule and ratio strain.
20. Describe the generalization-decrement hypothesis about the effects of intermittent reinforcement in producing persistent behavior. Describe a problem with applying the generalization-decrement hypothesis to human behavior.
